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ItemOpen Access
Response biases in visual processing: the effect of similarity and attention on judgments of sameness.
(2023) Humphries, Ailsa M.
It is well known that humans exhibit biased behaviours. Research suggests that both perceptual and cognitive biases arise from adaptive solutions to situations in which decisions must be made in the absence of complete information. These biases result from the operation of heuristics, or mental shortcuts, that evolved to keep us safe; to orient us towards friend and away from foe. While some biases are considered negative, leading to prejudice and discrimination, many are not; they are simply interesting tendencies that are worth studying to better understand information processing. Research in visual comparison tasks has identified two key biases. The spatial congruency bias (SCB) is a relative bias, with a greater tendency to judge objects as “same” if they are presented at the same location compared with a different location; and the overall bias (OB) is the average bias across all trials, that varies with overall display similarity and the degree to which analytic processing is required. Studying these biases will help with understanding the visual processing mechanisms that underlie object comparison, a fundamental task in our everyday activities. In two studies, signal detection theory was used to measure response bias and calculate the SCB and OB in visual comparison tasks that required judging whether two objects were the same or different. Each trial consisted of two sequential displays (S1 and S2). Each display contained a 3x3 grid with a target object in the middle row and two distractor objects, one in the top row and one in the bottom row. Participants judged whether the shape and/or position of a target object was the same or different in S1 and S2. There were two key manipulations common to both studies. Firstly, within every experiment the relative location of the grid between S1 and S2 was manipulated to assess the SCB. The grid was in the same location from S1 to S2 on half the trials and a different location on the remaining trials. Secondly, between experiments, the similarity of the distractor objects was manipulated with respect to the task relevant feature (i.e., their shape in the shape judgement task and their position in the position judgment task). The distractor objects either remained the same from S1 to S2 on most trials (high similarity) or they changed from S1 to S2 on all trials (low similarity). Study 1 was designed to investigate how location and display similarity affect response biases, and how those effects differ for position judgements versus shape judgements. Previous research has focused on investigating the SCB in judgments of object features such as shape and colour. In the first two experiments the task moved beyond feature comparisons, requiring comparison of the local position of the target (a black dot) with displays that had high similarity (Experiment 1) or low similarity (Experiment 2). The next two experiments directly compared the SCB and OB in position judgments versus shape judgments in within-subjects designs using letter stimuli; again, displays had high similarity (Experiment 3) or low similarity (Experiment 4). Together, the results of these experiments revealed that the SCB is a general phenomenon that applies to both position and shape comparisons, and is consistent regardless of stimulus type (dot or letter). Further, the SCB was weakened and the OB shifted more towards “different” when similarity was low, and the OB was shifted more towards “same” in position versus shape comparisons. The pattern of results suggests the SCB indexes the operation of a visual heuristic that is linked to the privileged nature of location and is evoked more often when similarity is high. Furthermore, as attentional selection requirements increase, due to the nature of the task and/or differences between displays, the tendency for “different” response increases. Study 2 was designed to determine whether an attentional mechanisms account, in which bias is modulated via adjustments to attentional zoom, or an overlap measure account, in which bias is modulated via an interaction between the number of differences and the threshold for a “different” response, is more parsimonious as an explanation for the effect of similarity on response bias. Previous research has indicated that the extent of attentional focus is adjusted to optimise target selection when the position of the target is predictable. In four experiments the position of the target letter was manipulated in the shape comparison task: it either remained in the same position from S1 to S2 or changed position, and this manipulation was either predictable (Experiments 5 and 7) or unpredictable (Experiment 6 and 8). Further, distractor similarity again varied from high (Experiments 5 and 6) to low (Experiments 7 and 8). The results revealed that reduced similarity affects response bias when either distractor shape or target position changes, and the predictability of target position only modulates bias when distractor similarity is low. The pattern of results suggests that mechanisms inherent in the overlap measure account provide a sufficient explanation for variation in response bias when holistic processing is possible, and that attentional mechanisms play an important role when analytic processing is required. In summary, a complex interaction between multiple factors influences response bias in visual comparisons. The SCB manifests as a result of the privileged nature of location which underpins a key heuristic, “same-location = same-object”, and the strength with which this heuristic is evoked varies with overall display similarity and attentional zoom settings. Visual similarity influences both the operation of the heuristic and the overall tendency for a “different” response via an interaction between the overlap measure, a “difference count” from the direct comparison of two displays, and the threshold for a “different” response, that develops on the basis of the heterogeneity of differences across multiple trials. Both biases are further modulated by attentional mechanisms that operate to adjust attentional zoom settings when experience with the task and/or displays indicates that analytic processing is optimal.
ItemOpen Access
Intergenerational parenting and wellbeing of Pacific families in Aotearoa | New Zealand : a strengths-based quantitative investigation.
(2023) Saunders, Deborah
Background Intergenerational parenting practices shape societies. Positive parenting practices that endure over time instil health-promoting behavioural strategies within families and across wider populations. Indigenous Pacific cultures enhance positive parenting practices through shared values of relational connections to family, community, and homeland. However, it is unclear how emigration away from place of origin may impact a parent’s ability to nurture adaptive interpersonal behaviour strategies for resilient wellbeing. Within Aotearoa | New Zealand, evidence suggests that cultural connections, acculturation, and social inequalities each have implications for relational behaviours within Pacific families. Many families have less access to their heritage forms of social support and raise children in surroundings with distinctly different cultural norms than those experienced by predecessors from their homelands. Pacific youth and their families today are increasingly challenged by inequalities in health and overall wellbeing. Thus, the following question remains: how do intergenerational parenting practices impact next-generation behaviours, and what contextual factors influence their stability? Aim This doctoral study examined the intergenerational parenting practices of Pacific families living in Aotearoa | New Zealand in the context of cultural change. It analysed how parenting practices influence next-generation behaviours and identified key social influences that promoted stability of intergenerational patterns. It aimed to improve understanding of the social determinants of positive parenting practices and youth wellbeing among Pacific mothers and their children participating in the Pacific Islands Families birth-cohort study. Methods This research analysed data that were prospectively collected over seven measurement waves from childbirth to age 14 years. A multi-level mixed effects modelling approach was applied to account for correlations within the repeated measures of participant responses. Relational behaviour patterns across three generations of Pacific families were examined to assess the stability of intergenerational parenting practices within this population. This involved the sequential study of three consecutive time phases of parenting influence along an intergenerational parenting developmental pathway: I) long-term effects of childhood parenting on current parenting practices; II) real-time effects between parent and child behaviours; and III) cumulative effects on adolescents’ self-concept development. At each phase, the effects of key social determinants were also assessed. Results Phase I examined associations between childhood parenting and current parenting practices of Pacific mothers of children aged two and four years. Maternal nurturance in childhood was the only type of recalled childhood parenting to have an enduring effect on current parenting practices. Mothers who recalled their maternal upbringing as often nurturing, rather than rarely, had significantly greater odds of frequent use of nurturing parenting practices with their children (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 1.6, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1, 2.3). Having a higher level of education and greater familiarity with local cultural contexts were also associated with more frequent use of nurturing parenting practices. Low household incomes were associated with harsh disciplinary practices. In Phase II, analysis of current parent and child behaviours at six time-points between child ages two and 14 years revealed strongly associated behaviour patterns. In particular, the adjusted odds of age-appropriate development of prosocial behaviour between ages six and nine years was 20.9 (95% CI: 9.8, 44.5) for mothers who reported frequent use of optimal parenting practices compared to those reporting infrequent use. Additionally, optimal parenting practices had an inverse association with child internalising and externalising behaviours. Adverse parenting practices, including those typified by harsh discipline or low monitoring, were persistent risk factors for higher odds of internalising and externalising behaviours. Phase III explored the prevalence of positive self-concept among Pacific youth (between ages 11 to 12 years) and their associations with parenting practices as had been reported over the previous five measurement waves. Self-concept was measured in terms of youth-perceived social relations and general self-worth. Pacific youth self-concept dimensions of parental relations, peer relations, and self-esteem were perceived as positive by 90%, 67%, and 61% of all youth, respectively. Cumulative parenting practices were most strongly related to the youth self-concept dimension of peer-relational competency, having enduring effects on youth-perceived peer relations. Optimal parenting practices related to greater odds of youth describing positive peer relations, while adverse parenting practices had the reverse effect. Discussion and Implications This series of studies of Pacific maternal parenting practices found that positive intergenerational parenting practices persisted within the post-migration context. This was a novel finding within the PIF Study population. No continuity of negative intergenerational parenting was observed. The strong parent-child associations that were either both positive or both negative indicated that these behaviour patterns were bidirectionally reinforcing. They also related to youth-perceived quality of relations beyond the parent-child relationship. Maternal acculturation and higher education were protective factors for the relational wellbeing of both parent and child. The importance of maternal acculturation to optimal parenting practices and child behaviour development implies that trusted, proximal social support is vital to optimal parenting in the post-migration context. The need for sufficient material resources to support the healthy development of children was underscored by the risk of inadequate income to maladaptive parent and child behaviours. The strong associations between maternal and child behaviours seen throughout childhood suggest that wellbeing developmental trajectories for both parent and child could be improved through early detection of behavioural challenges and parenting support. These findings advocate for a public health focus on reducing mothers’ social isolation that may result from cultural and language barriers, inadequate economic resources, or other factors affecting parental self-efficacy. Targeted, culturally responsive parenting support could benefit those mothers who do not recall frequent maternal nurturing in their own upbringing and those mothers currently experiencing challenging child behaviours. Public health initiatives that complement parental efforts to transmit adaptive cultural knowledge for relational health could benefit current and future generations and enhance wellbeing across multilevel social systems. Further in-depth research with Pacific mothers and youth is recommended to gain direct insights into the specific contexts that boost their personal agency to promote relational health and wellbeing resilience.
ItemOpen Access
Shared ambition: Should shared mobility feature in a transition to more equitable and sustainable transport?
(2023) Kingham, Simon; Fitt , Helen; Dares , Cushla; Coppens , Anna; Curl , Angela
ItemOpen Access
NZ Perspective on Urban Forests
(2024) morgenroth, justin
ItemOpen Access
ACTIVATION active, shared and low carbon transport interventions to enhance wellbeing
(2024) Witten , Karen; Raerino, Kimiora; Kingham, Simon; Russell , Els